Microbiology
Specific Instructional Objectives

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1. Identify the contributions to microbiology made by van Leeuwenhoek, Hooke, Pasteur, Koch, Lister, Ehrlich, Fleming, Jenner, Redi, Spallanzani, and Needham.
2. Compare the theories of spontaneous generation and biogenesis.
3. Use the scientific genus and species names correctly when writing the names of microorganisms.
4. List the major groups of organisms studied in microbiology.
5. List at least four beneficial activities of microorganisms.
6. Define normal flora and describe its importance in human health.
7. Define immunology, microbial ecology, microbial genetics, microbial physiology, molecular biology, mycology, and virology.
8. List the units of measurement used for microorganisms and be able to name their equivalents.
9. Given a diagram of a compound light microscope, label all the principal parts and describe the function of each part.
10. Diagram the path of light through a compound light microscope.
11. Define resolution, total magnification, and refractive index.
12. Cite an advantage of darkfield, phase-contrast, and fluorescence microscopy and compare each with brightfield illumination.
13. Explain how electron microscopy differs from light microscopy.
14. Differentiate between an acidic dye and a basic dye; differentiate between positive staining and negative staining techniques.
15. Describe the process of making a bacterial smear.
16. Compare simple, differential, and special stains according to purpose, advantages, disadvantages, and chemicals used for each.
17. List the steps in preparing a gram stain, and describe the appearance of a gram positive and gram-negative cell after each step.
18. Differentiate between procaryotic cells and eucaryotic cells and state to which group bacteria belong and explain why.
19. Identify the three basic shapes of bacteria and for each group describe the various arrangements formed by their cellular division.
20. Using the prefixes staphylo-, strepto-, diplo-, cocco-, and the terms coccus, bacillus, spirillum, monomorphic, pleomorphic, spirochete, vibrio, tetrad, and sarcinae describe and identify shapes and arrangements of bacteria
21. Describe the structures (and their functions) of procaryotic organisms.
22. Explain the differences between gram-positive and gram-negative cell walls of bacteria, and compare them with the cell walls of archaeobacteria and mycoplasmas.
23. Describe the structure, chemistry, and functions of the procaryotic plasma membtane.
24. Define simple diffusion, osmosis, facilitated transport, active transport, and group translocation.
25. Compare and contrast the overall cell structure, flagella, nucleus, and ribosomes of procaryotes and eucaryotes.
26. Explain what an organelle is.
27. Describe the functions of the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex, mitochondria, chloroplasts, and Iysosomes.
28. Define metabolism, and describe the fundamental differences between anabolism and catabolism.
29. Describe the mechanism of enzymatic action.
30. List the factors that influence enzymatic activity.
31. Explain what is meant by oxidation-reduction.
32. Describe the structure and function of an electron transport system.
33. List and provide examples of the three types of phosphorylation reactions that generate ATP.
34. Describe the chemical reactions of glycolysis.
35. Describe the chemical reactions of and list some products of fermentation.
36. Compare and contrast aerobic and anaerobic respiration, cyclic and noncyclic photophosphorylation, and the light and dark reaction of photosynthesis.
37. Categorize the various nutritional patterns among organisms, including energy source and principal source of carbon.
38. Describe the major types of anabolism and their relationship to catabolism.
39. Define bacterial growth, including binary fission.
40. Classify microorganisms into three principal groups on the basis of preferred temperature range.
41. Explain the importance of pH and osmotic pressure to microbial growth.
42. List the chemical requirements for microbial growth.
43. Explain how microorganisms are classified on the basis of oxygen requirements.
44. Distinguish between chemically defined media and complex media and give examples of each.
45. Define, give examples of, and justify the use of the following culture methods: selective and differential media, enrichment procedures, anaerobic media and techniques, living host cells, candle jars.
46. Describe how pure cultures can be isolated using streak plates.
47. Define generation time.
48. Name the phases of the bacterial growth curve and describe what happens during each phase.
49. Label the phases of the bacterial growth curve on a graph, using time as the x-axis and the log of numbers of bacteria as the y-axis.
50. Describe several direct and indirect measurements of microbial growth.
51. Define the key terms related to the destruction or suppression of microbial growth: sterilization, disinfection, antisepsis, germicide, bacteriostasis, asepsis, degerming, sanitization .
52. Explain how microbial growth is affected by the type of microbe, its physiological state, and the environmental conditions.
53. Describe the effects of microbial control agents on cellular structures.
54. Describe the physical methods of microbial control (moist heat, dry heat, pasteurization, filtration, low temperature, dessication, osmotic pressure, radiation) including the mechanism of action, relative effectiveness, preferred use, and limitations of each method .
55. Describe the factors related to effective disinfection and discuss their effects on the evaluation of a disinfectant.
56. Describe the roles the EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) and the AOAC (Association of Official Analytical Chemists) play in the testing and recommendation of disinfectants.
57. Explain what makes a disinfectant e~echve, and describe the various methods used for evaluating the effectiveness of disinfectants.
58. Given graphic data from a use-dilution test comparing various disinfectants (such as the one shown here), evaluate the effectiveness of the disinfectants:
    
    
    Bacterial Growth
    

1. Differentiate between the following disinfectants on the basis of method of antimicrobial activity, preferred use(s), and a commonly used example: - phenol and phenolics - chlorhexidine - halogens - alcohols - oxidizing agents - surface-active agents - organic acids - gaseous sterilants - aldehydes - heavy metals and their compounds.
2. Given a description of or an advertisement for a disinfectant, evaluate its probable effectiveness and determine the appropriate use(s) for it.
3. Define these key terms: genetics, chromosome, gene, genetic code, genotype, phenotype, semiconservative replication, complementary, transcription, translation, operon, mutation, mutagen, genetic recombination, genetic engineering.
4. Describe how DNA serves as genetic information.
5. Describe DNA replication.
6. Describe the process of protein synthesis, including transcription and translation.
7. Translate a nucleic acid sequence into a protein using the genetic code.
8. Explain the regulation of gene expression in bacteria by induction, repression, attenuation, and catabolite repression, including a description of the lac operon.
9. Classify mutations by type.
10. Compare and contrast the mechanisms of genetic transfer in bacteria.
11. Define "plasmid" and "transposon" and discuss the function(s) of each.
12. Define recombinant DNA, cDNA, genetic engineering, vector, and protoplast fusion.
13. Describe restriction enzymes, and outline how they are used to make recombinant DNA.
14. Describe how a gene library is made.
15. Outline genetic engineering using transforrnation.
16. Outline genetic engineering using transduction.
17. Outline genetic engineering with Agrobacterium.
18. Define DNA probes, and provide three examples of their use.
19. Diagram the Southern blot procedure.
20. Outline the polymerase chain reaction, and provide an example of its use.
21. List at least 5 current applications of genetic engineering.

1. Define key terms related to fungi: fungus (pl. fungi), mycology, thallus, hypha (pl. hyphae), septate hyphae, nonseptate hyphae, coenocytic hyphae, mycelium, aerial mycelium, vegetative mycelium, yeast, dimorphic fungi, asexual spores (arthrospore, chlamydospore, sporangiospore, conidiospore, blastospore), sexual spores (zygospore, ascospore, basidiospore).
2. Discuss the economic importance of the fungi.
3. Describe the wide variation in nutritional adaptations found in the fungi and relate that variation to economic effects and importance.
4. List the four medically important phyla of fungi and describe the defining characteristics of each phylum (including for each phylum: hyphal type, asexual spore type(s), sexual spore type, a representative organism belonging to the phylum, the organism's preferred habitat, and a drawing of the organism and its asexual spore arrangement).
5. Define "protozoan" and tell how protozoans are classified, where they are found in nature, and what they use for sources of energy.
6. List the four phyla of protozoans that include disease- causing species and describe the outstanding characteristics of each phylum.
7. Define"helminth."
8. Name the two phyla of parasitic helminths and for each phylum list several diseases caused by its members.
9. Define "arthropod vector" and name at least S arthropod vectors and a disease transmitted by each.
10. Define important terms: virus, virion, prion, oncogene, bacteriophage, obligate intracellular parasite.
11. Describe the general characteristics of viruses, including their general structure, host range, and size.
12. Describe the chemical composition of a typical virus, including nucleic acid, capsid, envelope, and spikes.
13. Classify viruses according to their morphology, and list other criteria used to classify viruses.
14. Explain how viruses caln be cultured in the lab.
15. Describe and diagram the lytic cycle of T-even bacteriophages.
16. Define lysogeny and describe and diagram the steps in lysogeny for bacteriophage lambda found in E. coli.
17. Discuss the three possible outcomes of lysogeny, and describe the importance of each to the virus and to the host cell.
18. Compare and contrast the multiplication cycle of DNA- and RNA-containing animal viruses
19. Describe and diagram the multiplication and inheritance processes of a retrovirus.
20. Describe the effects of animal viral infections on host cells.
21. Discuss the relationship of DNA- and RNA-containing viruses to cancer, and list at least four DNA-containing oncogenic viruses and two RNA-containing oncogenic viruses.
22. Relate viruses to the activation of oncogenes.
23. Differentiate between slow viral infections and latent viral infections, and give two examples of each.
24. Describe how unconventional agents could cause neurological diseases such as scrapie, kuru, and Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease.

1. Define important terms such as: pathology. etiology, pathogenesis, infection, disease, normal flora, transient flora, pathogenic, opportunists, microbial antagonism, symbiosis, commensalism, mutualism, parasitism.
2. Discuss the concept of "normal flora" and describe representative normal flora of the human body by body region.
3. List Koch's postulates, and name exceptions to Koch's postulates.
4. Define symptoms, signs, syndrome, communicable and noncommunicable diseases, and contagious diseases.
5. Compare and contrast "incidence" and "prevalence;" define and give an example of sporadic disease, endemic disease, epidemic disease, and pandemic disease.
6. Define and give and an example of an acute disease, a chronic disease, a subacute disease, and a latent disease.
7. Compare and contrast the following sets of terms: local infection and systemic (generalized) infection; bacteremia, septicemia, and viremia; primary infection, secondary infection, and inapparent infection.
8. Define a "reservoir of infection;" compare and contrast human, animal, and nonliving reservoirs, and give an example of each.
9. Explain four methods of transmission of disease and give at least three sub categories or examples of each method; indicate which methods you're most likely to come into contact with in your medical profession and also indicate ways in which the chain of transmission can be broken for each method
10. List the most common portals of exit for microorganisms to use when leaving the body.
11. Define "nosocomial infections" and describe their importance.
12. List the principal kinds of nosocomial infections in order of occurrence and name at least three microorganisms most commonly causing each of these infections.
13. Define "compromised host" and describe the factors that can cause an individual to be or to become a compromised host.
14. Cite THE most effective way to control nosocomial infections.
15. Identify four predisposing factors for disease.
16. Put the following terms in proper sequence in terms of the development of disease: period of decline, period of convalescence, period of illness, crisis, prodromal period, period of incubation.
17. Define epidemiology, and describe three methods of epidemiologic investigation.
18. Describe the CDC and the MMWR and tell how each can assist you in your health/science profession.
19. Compare and contrast "virulence" with "pathogenicity."
20. List the common portals of entry for MO's into the human body and describe exactly how MO's are able to use them.
21. Define, and then compare and contrast LDso and IDso.
22. Explain how adherence, capsules, cell wall components, and enzymes contribute to pathogenicity.
23. Compare the effects of hemolysins, leukocidins, coagulase, kinases, hyaluronidase, and collagenase.
24. Describe the three ways that MO's can damage host cells.
25. Define toxin, toxemia, toxigenicity, antitoxins, toxoids, cytotoxin, neurotoxin, and enterotoxin.
26. Compare and contrast the nature and effects of exotoxins and endotoxins.
27. Outline the mechanisms of action of diphtherotoxin, erythrogenic toxin, botulinum toxin, choleragen enterotoxin, staphyloenterotoxin, and lipid A.
28. Relate plasmids and Iysogeny to microbial pathogenicity.
29. List seven cytopathic effects of viruses.
30. Discuss the caus.es of symptoms in fungal, protozoan, and helminthic diseases.
31. Define resistance and susceptibility.
32. Define nonspecific resistance.
33. Describe the role of the skin and mucous membranes in nonspecific resistance, and differentiate between mechanical and chemical factors.
34. Define phagocytosis.
35. Classify leukocytes, and describe the roles of granulocytes and nongranulocytes in phagocytosis.
36. List the stages of phagocytosis and describe what happens in each stage.
37. Define inflammation and list the stages of inflammation.
38. Describe the stages of inflarnmation and their relation to nonspecific resistance.
39. Discuss the role of fever in nonspecific resistance.
40. List and describe the function and activity of the nonspecific antimicrobial substances produced by the body (complement, properdin, interferon).
41. Compare and contrast the 4 types of acquired immunity.
42. Define innate resistance and list the factors that affect a person's innate resistance.
43. Define immunity, antigen, hapten, antigenic determinant, anamnestic response, lymphokines, monoclonal antibodies, and antibody titer.
44. Discuss what is meant by "duality of the immune system" and describe the two main components of the immune system and the cells that make up each component.
45. Define the term "antigen" ("immunogen") and describe the structural and chemical characteristics of antigens.
46. Define the term "antibody" ("immunoglobulin" or"Ig") and describe the structural and chemical characteristics of antibodies.
47. List the 5 classes of antibodies and describe their function, whether or not they fix complement, and whether or not they can cross the placental barrier.
48. Compare and contrast humoral and cell-mediated immunity.
49. Differentiate among the types of T cells and their functions and products.
50. Describe the clonal selection theory.
51. Illustrate the anamnestic response graphically and describe each stage of the response.
52. Define serology, toxoid, attenutated, herd immunity, antibody titer, and vaccine.
53. Given data from a serologic test expressed in antibody titers state who has the disease, who does not have it and never has, who has recovered from the disease, and who has seroconverted, and when it occurred.
54. Explain the basis for each of the following tests and describe how each can be used in the diagnosis of a disease: precipitation, agglutination,, hemagglutination-inhibition complement fixation, neutralization, immunofluorescence, and ELISA.
55. Interpret correctly test results from the following serological tests: hemagglutination-inhibition, complement fixation, immuno-fluorescence, and indirect ELISA.
56. Define hypersensitivity, desensitization, histocompatibility antigens, HLA, immuno-suppression, allergen, secretors, erythroblastosis fetalis, Rhogam, autoimmunity, and immunologic tolerance.
57. Differentiate among the four types of hypersensitivity reactions by definition, Ig or effector cells, and examples of each type.
58. Describe the mechanisms of anaphylaxis.
59. Describe the basis of human blood groups and their relationship to blood transfusions and hemolytic disease of the newborn.
60. Given possible donor and recipient blood types, state which are compatible and which are not, and explain why.
61. Describe the mechanisms of contact dermatitis.
62. Give a possible explanation for autoimmunity.
63. Explain how rejection of a transplant occurs and how rejection can be prevented.
64. Discuss the causes and effects of immune deficiencies.
65. For the immunodeficiency disease AIDS, describe its cause, origin, the signs and symptoms, the modes of transmission of HIV, and available treatment (including the possibilities of a vaccine).
66. Describe the immune responses to cancer.
67. Define chemotherapeutic agent, antimicrobial agent, antibiotic, synthetic drug, spectrum of activity, superinfection, bacteriostatic, bactericidal.
68. List the criteria used to evaluate antimicrobial agents.
69. Identify five methods of action of antimicrobial agents.
70. Describe the problems of using chemotherapy for viral infections.
71. Explain the actions of currently used antiviral drugs.
72. Compare and contrast the Kirby-Bauer test (disk diffusion method) and the MIC test (minimum inhibitory concentration test) for susceptibility to chemotheraputic agents.
73. Given KB test results from the clinical microbiology lab, correctly interpret the results.
74. Given MIC test results from the clinical microbiology lab, correctly interpret the results.
75. Describe the mechanisms of drug resistance.